The North American City on the Ground

The North American continent is located within the Northern, and Western Hemisphere and bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the East, South America to the South-east, Arctic Ocean to the North, and Pacific Ocean to the West.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The North American City on the Ground specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More North America precedes Africa and Asia in largeness and accommodates twenty three states with diverse population and cultures. North America comprises such great cities as New York, Ottawa, Washington, New Orleans, Detroit, etcetera. These cities have different features that shape environmental and economical growth (Berry Henderson, 2002, p.8). Furthermore, North America is a heaven of archeology, culture, parks, science museums, world’s fairs and golf courses. These properties have been elevated for many years by tranquil environment, clean water systems together with plants and anim als found in the continent. Concisely, nature has encouraged the development of human population and infrastructure. Network linkages have been transformed to create a connection among all the states. These include both land and air connections that ensure efficiency and effectiveness in sharing goods and services among all the citizens and nations. Roads have enabled quick provision of resources to all the people irrespective of their cultural and social status (McIlwraith Muller, 2001, p.19).Advertising Looking for essay on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More New York is situated between the Atlantic Ocean and the Hudson River, which provide harbors for importation and exportation of goods and services. The harbors are also used for recreational activities that attract tourists to New York City. In this regard, New York City is characterized by a dense population rendering land to a scarce commodity; this is a challe nge for urban planning and protection of public land from grapping. Despite the dense population, New York City occupies the cleanest and the most tranquil environment in Northern America. The tranquil environment is accountable for energy efficiency reducing dependence on other cities. The economy of New York is highly dependent on the New York harbor, which has deep waters, so the goods and services from other cities enter the city by water. Moreover, the city has different districts, and water transport enables easy accessibility to neighboring provinces, specifically, Brooklyn, Long Island, and Queen’s provinces. Reclamation of land was done in lower Manhattan where modern constructions occupy, for example, Battery Park. Good subtropical climatic conditions have, however, been a contributing factor to the attraction of tourists to New York, thus contributing to the growth of the city’s economy and cultures.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The North American City on the Ground specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Furthermore, Ottawa is the capital city of Canada, and before 2001, there was a misunderstanding about its borders with Ottawa-Carleton, Pontiac in the North and Rockland in the West. Ottawa has adequate water supply due to the Ottawa River that has many tributaries that supply every village in the east and west, the Rideau River supplies water from the North to the South. However, lakes provide water for industrial use and power generation, for instance, in Brewer Park, there are lake Madawaska and Lac Deschenes, the Rideau River and hog’s back falls. Bays are attractions for tourist who bring revenues to the city. Conversely, Ottawa has natural wonders that enhance the attractiveness of the city, for example, Colonel Valley, Carp Ridge, Pine Grove forest, Cannan Hill and Stony Swamp. Washington is the capital city of America that is located between Virginia a nd Maryland States. Its topography includes such water bodies as the Potomac River, Rock Creek and the Anacostia River. Man-made features are found in Dalecarlia, Georgetown and McMillan reservoirs that provide water for domestic and industrial use. Washington also has various distinctive topographic features, for instance, Hains Point, Three Sisters, Theodore Roosevelt and Columbia Island. Native trees, such as oak, birch, willow and cedar, make up the environment of the region. The subtropical climate with four seasons makes Washington a tourist destination where cool weather may prevail (Brescia, Super 2009, p. 11).Advertising Looking for essay on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More New Orleans is one of the largest and highly populated cities in North America. It was adversely affected by the Hurricane Katrina and floods in 2005. Water bodies located in Orleans include the Mississippi and Lake Pontchartrains. Similarly, the architecture of New Orleans was influenced by French trends, thus depicting different cultural practices of the French people. Education is given a forefront in New Orleans and this is exemplified by universities like Loyola and Tulane Wilson. Detroit is located in the sores of the Detroit River and is well known for such water bodies as Lake Erie, Lake St Claire and the St. Clair River. Detroit is a flat land making it conducive for construction of modern buildings and infrastructures. Nonetheless, Detroit is an industrial zone, and this has negatively affected the environment. However, the industries also provide employment to people raising their living standards together with the per capita income in the state (Nostrand Estaville, 2001 , p.4). North America has a desirable geography that allows for the construction of infrastructure and tourists’ attractions and contributes to the exchange of cultural values. I mutually agree that the cities analyzed contribute to economic development of North America. All in all, features like rivers, lakes, ridges, falls, bays and plain lands enable a quick access of goods and services within the states and cities. References Berry, K. Henderson, M. (2002). Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place. Reno: University of Nevada press. Web. Brescia, M. , Super, J. (2009). North America: An Introduction. Toronto: University of Torornto Press. Web. McIlwraith, T. F., Muller, E. (2001). North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent (2nd ed.). New York: Rowman Littlefield Publishers. Web. Nostrand, R., Estaville, L. (2001). Homelands: A Geography of Culture and Place Across America. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkkins University Press . Web. This essay on The North American City on the Ground was written and submitted by user Bryant T. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

buy custom The Causes and Effects of Smoking essay

buy custom The Causes and Effects of Smoking essay Despite the fact that cigarette smoking is harmful to ones health, a fact that smokers know too well, most people experience difficulties in their attempt to quit smoking. Whereas one is free to choose whether to smoke or not, the decision to quit is not always straightforward. Quitting requires willpower and personal commitment in order to overcome this harmful habit. Although most smokers feel good during and after smoking, there are no documented health advantages. This essay shall explore the reasons why people smoke and the effects of smoking on the human body. There are various reasons why people choose to smoke. First, most smokers take cigarettes in order to avoid stressful thoughts. Cigarettes contain nicotine which acts as a stimulant thus alleviating ones emotional condition. Hence, it can deflect ones sad thoughts, fears and anxieties. Once nicotine is inhaled, it is rapidly absorbed in the lungs and directly into the bloodstream. On reaching the brain, it decomposes into various chemicals that have the effect of making the smoker feel light-headed, stress-free and contented with his or her current situation. On the other hand, those suffering from withdrawal symptoms exhibit excessive aggression, increased hostility, anger and anxiety. A recent report by the National Institute on Drug Abuse indicates that such people are likely to be sad or violent. When an individual quits smoking, it is imperative that he/she keeps away from stressful conditions that would otherwise generate an increased craving for cigarettes (Colby 1). Secondly, most smokers start smoking in order to fit in. A soon-to-be smokers environment may be heavily influenced by parents or friends who are regular smokers. For instance, it is a well-known fact that most people start smoking during their teenage years. Peer pressure is responsible for recruiting new smokers, who then become life-long cigarette consumers. In addition, teenager and the youth tend to idolize and emulate the actions of celebrities and other well-known societal figures. Hence, when celebrities appear in adverts or movies while smoking, the young generation picks up this habit believing that it is fashionable. Once one becomes a regular smoker, it becomes almost impossible to quit. Finally, some people may start smoking when experiencing a transition phase. Individuals have been known to start smoking when undergoing stressful situations or significant changes in their lives. For instance, a recently divorced man may turn to alcohol and cigarettes in order to avoid thinking about his predicament. Furthermore, stressed and overburdened employees may choose to take breaks at specific intervals during which they share cigarettes as they converse about their situation. Therefore, a non-smoker is soon initiated in the group as this symbolizes a common bond of friendship. In addition, some smoke in order to calm their nerves. Although nicotines soothing effects do not last long, a smoker derives a sense of confidence and calmness when facing situations that make one anxious or exited (Ditcher 1). Smoking exposes individuals to various risks. Cigarette smoking is not only detrimental to ones health, but also harmful to ones physique and teeth. Most effects are a result of the chemical compounds found in tobacco. First, tobacco contains tar, which is a collective term for various solid particles that are found in cigarette smoke. Studies have shown that when an individual smokes for a considerably long time, tar accumulates in the lung and may eventually lead to cancer. In addition, tar contains sticky compounds which lead to stained teeth, fingernails, nasal passages and trachea, and scarred lung tissue. Secondly, tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide, an odorless, colorless fatal gas. This gas competes with oxygen for hemoglobin in the red blood cells. Hence, by bonding with these cells, less oxygen reaches vital body organns such as the heart, brains and muscles that require an adequate supply of oxygen. Thirdly, tobacco smoke contains hydrogen cyanide, a chemical that slow s down the respiratory systems regulatory scheme. Lungs and the bronchioles contain tiny hairs referred to as cilia that sweep back and forth in order to remove foreign objects in these air passages and spaces. Once these hairs are inhibited from carrying this all-important duty, air passages clog with foreign materials, resulting in respiratory difficulties and infections. In addition, tobacco smoke contains free radicals, metals and radioactive compounds which damage vital organs such as the heart and lead to the rupture of blood vessels. Metals such as cadmium and lead are carcinogenic and inhibit enzymes hence preventing enzymatic activity (Better Health Channel 1-4). Finally, cigarette smoke harms the reproductive system in males and females as well as the unborn baby. In men, cases of low sperm count, increased proportions of deformed sperms, unwarranted adjustments in the sex hormones such as testerone, reduced sperm mobility and cases of impotence have been reported. In fema les, smoking leads to higher exposure to risks such as miscarriage and premature birth, irregular menstrual cycles, early menopause, stroke in those over 35 years old, and increased incidences of cancer of the cervix. The unborn baby is faced by various risks such as low child birth weight which may lead to prolonged difficulties during subsequent growth and development, and high probability of occurrence of cleft clip and respiratory illnesses (Yap 1). In conclusion, smoking harms the consumer as well as those close to him or her. Although smoking is a personal decision, its side effects are felt by the user, ones immediate family and the community at large. Therefore, it is imperative to raise awareness amongst smokers and non-smokers. This will not only help smokers quit cigarettes but shall also deter non-smokers from joining their counterparts. Buy custom The Causes and Effects of Smoking essay

Taxation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Taxation - Essay Example 28). Therefore, from this claim the people who own many assets or earn some good salaries pay more to the government trough taxation. Taxation is, therefore, necessary in order to meet the cost of expenses and in the running of day-to-day government affairs. â€Å"It is the sole responsibility of the government to collect taxes and ensure that it is carefully spent for the benefit of the citizens† (Mirrlees & Adam, 2011 p. 39). Taxation is the main means through which governments raise the required money to pay for commodities and services that they provide for the people. In fact, most governments depend on taxes to pay for the major portion of their spending since it is their major source of revenue. â€Å"It is important to note that, governments are always under pressure from citizens demanding quality education, health care, security and infrastructure† (Lymer & Hasseldine, 2002 p. 17). Taxes at the local level are necessary for construction of classrooms, public l ibraries, security service stations, sport facilities, as well as for the payment of municipal employees and county directors government revenues (obtained from taxes) are essential. The government to run the budget without borrowing grants from other countries uses taxes (Ahmad, 1999 p. 82). However, taxation is not the only way governments use to collect money for their spending. â€Å"Government’s cannas well levy a variety of users to pay for bridges, parks, and sports stadiums among other services to get revenue from users rather than the taxpayers† (Barro & Boskin, 1978 p. 125). â€Å"In addition, Governments also borrow funds to support their tax revenues whenever they run short of target in budget† (Claus, 2010). The standard of living of the modern society demands taxation by all means, this is because the government must collect taxes in order to meet the needs, wants and demands of its citizenry. No government can exist without taxation, though taxati on can never exist without the government, as well. â€Å"One could, therefore, argue that taxation is a necessity for the governments to run all the activities aimed at improving the living standards of the citizens all over the world† (Keen & Smith, 2000 p 40). â€Å"The value added tax is a form of consumption tax. This is the tax imposed on to the buyer when purchasing goods from any dealer whereas on the prospect of the seller, it is the tax imposed on the product, service or the material from an accounting point of view from the producer† (James, 2009 p 13). The final consumer is taxed in this way and; hence, the total tax levied at each stage is what makes continuous chain of supply; thus, collection of VAT is borne by the business but not the state. Tax merits The collection of VAT in the UK has a number of merits for instance; it enables the government to create a stronger incentive to collect revenues even through the sales tax are low. This is because the fi nal consumer of the product cannot easily evade payment unlike trough the previous method and does not give the seller the legality to collect it. â€Å"The UK government has been able to balance the amount of taxes collected per year through VAT since the seller is the motivator of the buyer but has no direct economic incentive to collect it† (Bird, 1999 p 25). It has also been able to balance the application of equal taxes to each member of the production chain without much care on the position in it and

Telecommunication Regulatory Authority Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Telecommunication Regulatory Authority - Essay Example This method would be used to define the tasks and responsibilities that can be implemented in order to convert the firm’s inputs into outputs. Research has shown that TRA has exceeded its expectations by achieving its projected goals in time but this should not be an end in itself but a beginning to an end. Thus, the purpose of benchmarking is to describe the steps that are necessary in carrying out this process whenever the need arises. The management has the responsibility of identifying the metrics of benchmarking as well as implementing it in the operations of TRA. This organization is mandated with the responsibility of carrying out a variety of duties related to the Telecommunications and Information Technology sector in and outside the UAE. To that effect, benchmarking is essential in order to measure the company’s performances against its expected best practices. Basically, benchmarking refers to the process of comparing the processes in business or performance metrics to best practices. Essentially, every business is primarily concerned with achieving the desired goals and objectives and these should be matched with the organization’s set best practices. As such, this paper seeks to critically analyse how the Telecommunication Regulatory Authority in UAE can effectively utilize the strategy of benchmarking in order to ensure that its operations are in compliance with its expected best practices. The main objectives of TR mainly derive from the UAE Telecommunications law. According to TRA (2015), its objectives include the following: ensuring adequacy of telecommunications services throughout the UAE; achieving enhancement of services, encouraging telecommunications and IT services within the UAE; promoting and enhancing the telecommunications sector within the UAE as well as resolving disputes between the licensed operators among oth ers. TRA also

An Unmanageable Case-Management Quandary Case Study

An Unmanageable -Management Quandary - Case Study Example In addition to that, there will be a look at the advantages and disadvantages of individual and master calendar systems with regard to issues in the criminal division. Thereafter a recommendations with regard to this courts statistical report. Case management approach constitutes of two systems namely individual and Master calendar system. In individual calendar system a filed case is dealt with by one judge to full completion. The advantage in regard to this is that cases are heard fully, there are no interferences from other forces such as other judges and any other potential rivalries. This enhances speedy delivery of final judgment but, it rather limits the judgment since other different perspectives and opinions are not in play. On the contrary, the master calendar system seems to be much effective according to Chung (2011). It allows different views into play and thus not limiting the judgment. It is disadvantaged in that it delays decisions on cases as the other judges who come into play differ in decisions, philosophies and fear contradicting earlier judgment made by judges thereon. This slows down decisions on cases as they deliberate more on the diverse issues raised. Criminal division is a rotation of judges between criminal and civic law system. This has far implications in regard to its advantages and disadvantages associated with it. One of the merits is that it relieves burn-outs of judges due to emotional intensity cases and facilitates ease from workloads. On the other it’s quite limiting in cases where final verdict on a case was not reached. This leads to prolonging of the case as newest judge has to familiarize with the case before determining its verdict. Therefore, it leads to delay of judgment upon the prevalent case and many cases are left pending. Juvenile division refers to the courts put in place in correction of the minors in the society as Sutton (1985) elaborates. For instance, judges deployed

Climate Change Mitigation Strategies: UNFCCC and India

Climate Change Mitigation Strategies: UNFCCC and India From UNFCCC Goals to India Abstract: Climate Change has the potential to alter the ability of the earths physical and biological systems to provide goods and services essential for sustainable development. Recognition of Climate Change as a significant global environmental challenge has a recent origin. International efforts to address the climate change formally began only a decade ago with the adoption of United Nations Framework Convention to Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992. India is a party to UNFCCC and the government of India attaches great importance to climate change issue. India is a vast country covering 3.28 million Km2 with diverse surface features and supports 16.2 percent of the global human population. Endowed with varied soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regimes, under diverse natural conditions and over a billion people speaking different languages, following different religions and living in rural and urban areas, India is an example for a complex yet successful democratic system. Decentralization of powers through local government, to benefit the grass root level is another significant feature of Indian Government. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts, 1992, of the Constitution of India have endowed vast powers to local governments at rural and urban levels respectively. Indias commitments to mitigate climate change are reflected in the essence of these two acts and the working and powers given to the local government. This paper explains and brings to picture how climate change mitigation strategies are filtered in Indian System right from the UNFCCC goals to The Government of India and further to smaller levels of local governments. The paper will explain the hierarchy and working of Indian governance system and highlights the climate change initiatives within this system. The paper will also analyze the constraints and gaps in the institutional setup at local level, which, if rectified, would give more successful results in Climate Change Mitigation Mission of the Government of India. Introduction: Over a decade ago most countries joined an international treaty- The United Nations Convention on Climate Change so as to consider the impacts of climate change and to work for adaptation and mitigation initiatives for secure future and sustainable development. The convention, commonly known as the UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. The ultimate objective of The convention is stabilizing green house gas emissions at a lower level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate systems. Under the convention the governments- Gather and share information on greenhouse gas emissions, national policies and best practices Launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries. Cooperate in preparing the adaptation to the impacts of climate change. In 1997, the Kyoto protocol came into being, which shared the conventions objectives, principles and institutions and also significantly strengthened the convention by committing the parties to individual and specially; â€Å"legally binding targets† to limit or reduce climate change. The text of the Kyoto Protocol was adopted unanimously in 1997; and it entered into force on 16 February 2005. India is signatory to various multilateral environmental agreements, including The Montreal Protocol, The convention on Biological diversity, the United nations Convention to combat desertification ,including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) .Government of India attaches great importance to climate change issues. Eradication of poverty, avoiding risks to food production, and sustainable development are three principles embedded in the Convention. At present, information provided in the Indias Initial National Communication to the UNFCCC is in terms of guidelines prescribed for Parties not included in Annex I to the UNFCCC and the inventory is prepared for the base year 1994. India is a vast country. It covers 3.28 million km2 of area having diverse surface features. Also, it occupies only 2.4 percent of the worlds geographical area, but supports 16.2 per cent of the global human population. The country is endowed with varied soils, climate, biodiversity and ecological regimes. â€Å"Under such diverse natural conditions, over a billion people speaking different languages, following different religions and living in rural and urban areas, live in harmony under a democratic system†( India NATCOM,2004). Climate Change Negotiations Global warming issue became a part of the international agenda in 1988. The climate issue, initiated by the small island nation Malta, came up at the UN General Assembly in December 1988, as part of a discussion on the common heritage of mankind. The resolution set up a preparatory committee to work towards an international agreement. The concern for global warming particularly by the industrialized countries geared up since then and climate politics came into being and were refined with a series of international conferences and formal negotiations that followed. The momentum culminated in the signing of a Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) and opened for signatures at the Rio Earth Summit in June, 1992. The FCCC aims at stabilization of greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations, in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Subsequently, the parties to the FCCC adopted the Kyoto Protocol in December, 1997. However, the developing nations see the Protocol as burdened with loopholes because of the fact that it emphasizes on the economic concerns, rather than ecological or social justice. The main area of dispute between the developed countries and the developing countries lies in the sectors pertaining to equity and sustainability. However, the operational details of the Kyoto Protocol have now been finalised after intensive deliberations at Marrakech, on November 10, 2001, which was participated by 171 countries . The protocol has been guided by Article 3.0 of the FCCC, and marks the first global attempt to place legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions from developed countries. The Protocol calls for 5.2% reduction from their 1990 level of GHG emissions by the developed countries during the period 2008-2012. It also specifies the amount each country must contribute toward meeting the reduction goal. Nations with the highest CO2 emissions like the United States, Japan and most European nations are expected to reduce emissions by a range of 6 to 8 per cent. By 2005, all industrialized nations that ratify the accord must also show demonstrable progress toward fulfilling their respective commitments under the Protocol. Some issues that add to the complexity of the Kyoto Protocol: Considerations for baseline and its effects The target of 5.2% reduction beyond 1990 level in the commitment period 2008-2012, were dependent on 1990 emissions. This meant that if a country which had high emissions in 1990 and had reduced them between 1990 and thereafter, then it could actually increase its emission once again, or only stabilize these, and not carry out any reductions. As an example one can analyse the case of Australia. In 1990, as much as 30 percent of the emissions were from deforestation, which eventually became a blessing for the country for, instead of penalizing for creating the problem in the first place, Australia has been able to use its emission to its advantage, by winning the right to count any improvement from its 1990 level as its national credit. And as its deforestation rate has been controlled, it actually can increase its emission above and beyond the figure of 8 percent it is expected to reduce. On the other hand, USA and Japan were lobbying hard to change the date of baseline from 1990 to 1995. The reason for this lies in the fact that both the countries have made a significant increase in carbon emissions between 1990 and 1995. Flexible mechanisms The Kyoto Protocol includes three mechanisms Art.6 (Joint Implementation), Art.12 (Clean Development Mechanism) and Art.17 (Emissions Trading), These mechanisms are meant to pave an explicit way for developed countries to meet their Kyoto targets easily. The cheapest and the most attractive option for meeting the emission targets of the North (i.e developed countries-Annexe I) being the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) that will be operated on the project basis invested in the South (i.e under developed countries). This implies that, as global warming is bound to be unsolved even by the end of this century, the South would have to pay a heavy price in future once they have reached a high level of energy efficiency through means like CDM. For by then the cost of carbon cutting will be very high even for the developing countries, which would eventually have to do the carbon cutting on their own. The next issue comes on the question of energy-efficient technology, which the North wishes to push to the South through CDM. As technology up-gradation is a continuous process, hence what is the most efficient technology at the time of implementation of the CDM project, may be obsolete within few years that follows. Principle of equity: the Kyoto Protocol does not define the rights and responsibilities of all nations within a reasonable frame. So long as the world remains within a carbon based energy economy, equitable sharing of the atmosphere shall remain a critical issue, especially for poor developing countries who need a maximum space for their future economic growth. The Kyoto reduction, by itself, is inadequate to achieve a stabilization of climate change by 2100. A continual and larger reduction, similar to that stipulated in the Kyoto Protocol for the 2008-2012 period, will be needed in the future in order to begin to stabilize long-term greenhouse gas emissions. Even if stabilization of greenhouse gases is achieved, global warming will still continue for several decades and sea levels will continue to rise for several centuries. This is because Even if the emissions from the developed countries were reduced to zero in the near future, the current trends of growing emissions from developing countries alone could force the atmospheric concentration to exceed stabilization levels of 550 ppm ( Parivesh, CPCB,2006). Thus, participation of all countries, including the developing countries such as India, is essential for a successful worldwide effort to arrest the growth of greenhouse gas emissions. India and Climate Change- The Threats and Vulnerability Climate Change is a major global environmental problem and an important issue because of diverse impacts not only ecological, but economic, social, political and physical in nature and content. It is a matter of great concern especially for developing countries like India who have limited capacity to develop and adopt strategies to reduce their vulnerability to changes in climate. Global, national and local level measures are need of the hour to combat the adverse impacts of climate change induced damages. â€Å"India being a developing country has low capacity to withstand the adverse impacts of climate change due to high dependence of majority of population on climate sensitive sectors as the agriculture, forestry and fisheries†,( Shukla, et.al, 2003). This is coupled with poor infrastructure facilities, weak institutional mechanisms and lack of financial resources. This is the reason why we are seriously concerned with the possible impacts of climate change. The possible impacts of climate change are mentioned below: Water stress and reduction in the availability of fresh water due to potential decline in rainfall. Threats to agriculture and food security, since agriculture is monsoon dependent and rain dependent agriculture dominates in many states. Shifts in area and boundary of different forest types and threats to biodiversity with adverse implications for forest-dependent communities. Adverse impact on natural ecosystems, such as wetlands, mangroves, grasslands and mountain ecosystems. Adverse impact of sea-level rise on coastal agriculture and settlements. Impact on human health due to the increase in vector and water-borne diseases, such as malaria. Increased energy requirements and impact on climate-sensitive industry and infrastructure. One of the various reasons for vulnerability of India depends on its typical and diverse climatic conditions. India is subject to a wide range of variation in climatic conditions from the freezing Himalayan winters in the north to the tropical climate of the southern peninsula, from the damp, rainy climate in the north-east to the arid Great Indian Desert in the north-west, and from the marine climates of its vast coastline and islands to the dry continental climate in the interior. The Indian summer monsoon is the most important feature in dictating meteorology of the Indian subcontinent and, hence, its economy. Almost all regions of the country receive entire annual rainfall during the summer monsoon (also called the SW monsoon), while some parts of the south-eastern states also receive rainfall during early winter from the north-east monsoon. Therefore, India could be more at risks than many other countries from changes in temperature and sea level. Models predict an average increase in temperature in India from 2.3 to 4.8  °C for the bench mark doubling of carbon dioxide scenario (Lonergan, World Bank Technical Paper No.402, 1998). Temperatures would rise more in Northern India than in Southern India. In the North Indian Ocean, under a doubling, the average number of tropical disturbance days could increase from 17 to 29 a year (Haarsma et.al Climate Dynamics, Vol.8, 1993); while, without protection, approximately 7 million people would be displaced, and 5,760 Km2 of land and 4,200 Km of road would be lost (Asthana, JNU, New Delhi, 1993). Further, in the Indian context, climate change could represent an additional stress on the ecological and socioeconomic system that are already facing tremendous pressure due to rapid urbanization, industrialization and economic development. Options for Mitigation â€Å"The ability to adapt to climate change depends on the level of income and technology, as well as the capacity of the system of governance and existing institutions to cope with change. The ability to mitigate GHG emissions depends on industrial structure (the mix of industrial activities), social structure (including, e.g., the distance people must travel to work or to engage in recreational activities), the nature of governance (especially the effectiveness of government policy), and the availability and cost of alternatives. In short, what is feasible at the national level depends significantly on what can be done at the subnational, local, and various sectoral levels†(Climate Change 2001: Working group III: Mitigation; IPCC,2001).The challenges of climate change mitigation involve diverse issues economic, political, social and environmental. Governance is one of the prime issues in mitigation of climate change impacts. A structured governance system is the only tool through which any policy framework or initiative can be achieved. The importance or role of governance in mitigation thus can be described through its three pillars: Organizational Structure- Through governance the qualities of organization participation, transparency and accountability can be achieved in the mitigation exercise at all levels.. Financial Mobilization- This involves ensuring financial commitment globally, at national levels and also at local levels of the government Legal Framework- It ensures empowerment, enforcement and compliance of mitigative strategies and supporting environmental laws. As the National GHG inventory for India shows, the major increase in GHG emissions over the next 20 years would be related to energy consumption. As India has abundant coal deposits, it is beyond doubt that coal will be the dominant source of energy. Therefore, energy efficiency measures in this sector remain our prime concern. Power generation in India is expected to reach a peak demand of 176 GW by 2012, and the total energy requirement will be 1058 billion units (Parivesh, Central Pollution Control Board, 2006). This is why; increasing the use of renewable energy and energy efficiency in the form of low carbon options are the two main measures that can greatly reduce GHG emissions. We will now simultaneously specify what scientific mitigation tools for climate change are available for various sectors and the corresponding governance measures to actually target the process of mitigation. The energy sector: Fiscal incentives and taxes, voluntary emission reductions, green rating, and capacity building etc. Another area of importance is the transmission and distribution losses, which is energy loss. There is considerable scope of reducing losses, meant to translate into a large mitigation potential. Two major categories of Barriers hinder adoption of electricity conservation and demand management in India. a) Macro-level barrier At the level of governance system; either policy induced or due to lack of appropriate policies and; b) Micro-level barriers related to the consumers and the economic environment they face.This can be equated to lack of awareness about possible alternatives on the part of the consumers and lack of awareness drives on the part of the government. The forestry sector: IPCC Second Assessment Report categorizes three broad options for abatement viz. Conservation management: This strategy attempts to conserve the existing carbon storage capacity of forests by halting or slowing down forests deforestation and forests degradation. Storage management : This strategy attempts to increase carbon strategy in woody vegetation and soil in existing degraded forests, as well as to create new carbon sinks in areas where forests do not exists or have been cleared. These may be achieved by promoting natural regeneration, reforestation on deforested lands, aforrestation of non-forest lands and agro-forestry on crop and pastureland. Substitution management: This strategy attempts involves the replacement of fossil fuels by renewable fuel wood or other biomass products. Here, governance plays an important role based on it a capacity to generate and bring about changes in the management of forests and augmentation of use of renewable products. The agriculture sector: Methane emissions from rice cultivation remain the major contributor of GHG emissions. Other sources being enteric fermentation, manure management, agricultural soils etc. Abatement strategy in this sector in India can be achieved given the scientific expertise available in India, but require gearing up by proper governmental intervention at the level of ministry of agriculture, as far as policy initiatives are concern, and through local governments for implementation and monitoring. The industrial sector: As the national inventory of GHG shows, major contribution came from energy intensive sectors like iron steel, fertilizer, cement, aluminium, paper pulp etc. A few option available for energy efficient options in power, industrial and domestic sector are given as follows: Source: Teri, New Delhi. These can be supported by further subsidizing use of energy efficient options and where required made mandatory by the government under the periphery of the existing environmental laws of the country. Mitigation through sinks: Carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere by a number of processes that operate on different time scales, and is subsequently transferred to reservoirs or sinks. The Kyoto Protocol through its Ariticle 3.3 allows afforestation as a sink to reduce carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Further, Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol states that additional human induced activities in the agricultural soils and LULUCF categories may be added to the three mechanisms (Joint implementation, Clean Development mechanism and Emission trading) subject to certain conditions. In India, forestry is dominated by government based institutions. These institutions need new insight so that they can effectively incorporate mitigation policies and measures in their resource management activities. According to the central Pollution Control Board, India has been persistently implementing one of the largest reforestation programs in the tropics with over one million hectares planted annually. Nearly half of this reforestation is on degraded forests and village common land. It is estimated that the carbon uptake in forests, degraded forests, and plantations is estimated to offset the gross carbon emissions from the forests sector. Carbon dioxide emissions in India are projected to increase from no-net emissions in 1990 to 77 million tonnes by 2020( Parivesh, CPCB,2006). Barriers to mitigation: Greenhouse gas mitigation measures are compounded by several barriers inherent to the process of development. In India, inequitable distribution of income and wealth forms a core feature of barriers to effective implementation of any type of intervention in India, leave apart climate change. Available instruments to limit domestic GHG emissions can be categorized into market based instruments, regulatory instruments, and voluntary agreements. For the developing countries, however, domestic structural reforms and policies on trade liberalization and liberalization of energy markets act as barriers to GHG reduction. These policies coupled with macroeconomics, market oriented reforms, set the framework in which more specific climate policies would be implemented. The IPCC Special Report on technology Transfer (IPCC, 2000) identifies various important barriers that could impede environmental technology transfer, such as: lack of data, information, and knowledge, especially on emerging technologies; inadequate vision about the understanding of local needs and demands; high transaction costs and poor macro economic conditions; insufficient human and institutional capabilities; inappropriate technology adopted and Poor legal institutions and framework. These hold good for the overall barriers of mitigation in Indian Context also. In terms of governance and its intervention, technology transfer can be traded off with some of our own indigenous technologies. This will ensure equitable exchange and also promote indigenous Indian Science. National Policy for Climate Change Mitigation We, as present generation have inherited this environment and atmosphere from our ancestors. Further the consequences of climate change will be faced by our children in the future. And so it can be said that climate change is an inherently different and irreversible problem as compared to other environmental problems. Also, the assumption that prior experience of problems like air pollution has failed at many levels as a good model upon which policy decisions on climate can be based. Options to mitigate climate change include actual emission reductions carbon dioxide sequestration and investments in developing technologies that will make future reductions affordable and easily available since cheap relative to their current costs. Since the inception of UNFCC in 1992, the Govt. of India has been an active participant in the climate charge negotiations. India being a party to the UNFCC was the 38th country to ratify it on November 01, 1993. The Ministry of Environment Forests is the nodal Ministry for all environment related activities in the country and is the nodal Ministry for co-coordinating the climate charge policy as well. The working group on the FCCC was constituted to oversee the implementation of obligations under the FCCC and to act as a consultative mechanism in the Govt. for impacts to policy formulation on climate change. To enlarge the feedback mechanism the Govt. of India has constituted an Advisory group on climate charge under the chairmanship of the Minister of Environment Forests. Development of National Guidelines Policy Options for reducing GHG Emissions The national guidelines or framework for monitoring GHG emissions and policy options for reducing GHG should emphasize not only on issues associated with climate change but also include the following: Emission Forecasting Setting goals Policy criteria Policy evaluation Organizational and political issues Climate change and GHG emission and sequestration may include many sectors of society and extend far into the future. Furthermore, policy measures to address GHGs overlap with many other public policy objectives, however in a complimentary way. Policy formulations involve: Understanding the issues at hand, Having a broad vision of the range of actions that governments can take to address those issues, Selecting from within this the approaches that offer the most potential far achieving multiple public goals. More importantly, the policy formulation process must respond to local circumstances and must address institutional, fiscal, political, and other constraints. The Govt. of India has nevertheless addressed a large number of local and regional environmental issues in its developmental strategy that are complementary to the climate change issue. Institutional Arrangements So Far For Climate Change Related Strategies In Area of Research The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Ministry of Science and Technology (MST), Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), Ministry of Water Resources (MWR), Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Ministry of Non Conventional Energy (MNES), Ministry of Defence (MoD), Ministry of Health and Family welfare (MoHFW), are the main ministries of the Government of India which promote and undertake climate and climate change-related research in the country. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is also am important agency involved in working of this area and is under the direct governance of the Prime Minister.It supports all the above agencies with satellite-based passive remote sensing. The MoEF, MST, MHRD and MOA operate under the umbrella of many premier national research laboratories and universities. The most prominent being the 40 laboratories of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), an autonomous body under the MST; and the vast network of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) under the MOA. The CSIR is the national RD organization which provides scientific and industrial research for Indias economic growth and human welfare. It has a countrywide network of 40 laboratories and 80 field centers. The ICAR network includes institutes, bureaus, national research centers, The Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the MST coordinates advanced climatic and weather research and data collection over the Indian landmass. There are three premier institutions under DST that are solely dedicated to atmospheric science viz. the IMD, the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecast (NCMRWF) and the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM). Apart from the Indian initiatives, climate change research promoted by international organizations like the World Climate Research Program (WCRP), International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (IGBP), International Human Dimension Program (IHDP) and DIVERSITAS are being strongly supported by various Indian agencies like Indian Climate Research Program (ICRP) under DST, National Committee- International Geosphere Biosphere Programme (NC-IGBP) constituted by Indian National Science Academy (INSA) and Geosphere-Biosphere Program (GBP) of ISRO. Agencies like CSIR, also provides infra-structural and financial support to carry out research in the area of global change In Area of Development The single most important feature of our post-colonial experience is that the people of India have conclusively demonstrated their ability to forge a united nation despite its diversity, and to pursue development within the framework of a functioning, vibrant and pluralistic democracy. In this process, the democratic institutions have put down firm roots, which continue to gain strength and spread. A planned approach to development has been the central process of the Indian democracy, as reflected in the national five-year plans, state plans,departmental annual plans, and perspective plans of various ministries of the central and state governments. For the last five and a half decades, the guiding objectives of the Indian planning process have been sustained economic growth, poverty alleviation, food, health, education and shelter for all, containing population growth, employment generation, self-reliance, peoples participation in planning and programme implementation, and infrastruc ture development. The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992, provides the basis for the integration of environmental considerations in the policies of various sectors. It aims at the achievement of sustainable lifestyles and the proper management and conservation of resources. The Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution, 1992, stresses the prevention of pollution at the source, based on the ‘polluter pays principle. It encourages the use of the most appropriate technical solutions, particularly for the protection of heavily polluted areas and river stretches. The Forest Policy, 1988, highlights environmental protection through preservation and restoration of the ecological balance. The policy seeks to substantially increase the forest cover in the country through afforestation programmes. This environmental framework aims to take cognizance of the longer-term environmental perspective related to industrialization, power generation, transportation, mining, agriculture, irrigation and other such economic activities, as well as to address parallel concerns related to public health and safety. The statutory framework for the environment includes the Indian Forest Act, 1927, the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, and the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Other enactments include the Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, the National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995, and the National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997. The courts have also elaborated on the concepts relating to sustainable development, and the ‘polluter pays and ‘precautionary principles. In India, matters of public interest, particularly pertaining to the environment, are articulated effectively through a vigilant media, an active NGO community, and very importantly, through the judicial process which has recognized the citizens right to a clean environment as a component of the right to li

Oliver Twist - Summary :: essays research papers

During the summer of 1999, I have chosen to read the book, Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens. Reading this book will better prepare me for my upcoming course of global studies because it deals with many of the regions and time periods we will be studying in class. Although this book was a classic that I thought I had known so much about, reading it and paying attention to the setting and surroundings of the young boy’s life, I noticed many historical events and customs from his time period. The following is a report including the answers to the questions provided for my summer reading program. The story begins with a woman giving birth to a baby without the proper instruments necessary and dies. The boy is brought up in a dirty home with little to eat and under poor conditions. No one knows of the boy’s identity. His government caretakers give him the name Oliver. Oliver grows up in a world with no sympathy for poor orphans. He goes to London to escape his mean guardians and to try to make a better life for himself. On his journey he is mixed up with thieves and is caught stealing even though it was the people he was with. He gets sick and is taken care of by the people who he originally stole from and they grow to love him. The thieves find out about him staying with the people and kidnap him. More stealing takes place and Oliver is trained to be a better thief. One time, during a robbery, Oliver is shot and left for dead by the thieves. The people at the house Oliver was to rob took him in and gave him a home. Oliver’s identity is found. It turns out that O liver was supposed to receive an inheritance from his father and one of the people who got him caught knew this. After confessing, Oliver received his inheritance and lived a happy life from then on. After reading this book and studying the surroundings of the main characters as well as the other characters, I am lead to believe that this book takes place in two different sections of England in the late seventeen hundreds to the early eighteen hundreds. Most of the story takes place in warehouses and in broken down buildings or other hideouts. Other scenes take place in the home of wealthy people in London.